Project breif Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Project breif - Literature review Example This research proposal concerns the conduct of a dissertation involving the investigation, assessment and analysis of various challenges involved in the management of government projects in Saudi Arabia and the provisioning of appropriate recommendations for their successful management. As a means of reducing inefficiency and maximizing productivity, stakeholders throughout the business world have come to appreciate the power of timely and relevant project management theory (Al-Otaibi et al., 2013). As such, globalization has created a situation in which firms from around the globe integrate with businesses and projects in other countries. Therefore, engaging in a deeper and more efficient means of globalised project management is a step towards modernization and development; a goal towards which this proposal is fundamentally directed. While the implementation of infrastructural projects is undoubtedly increasing in the developing and emerging economies, project management in these countries is associated with a number of specific challenges (Frame, 2002). Such challenges increase when projects are undertaken for governmental organisations and departments (Frame, 2002). Extensive project work is occurring in Saudi Arabia, with the Kingdom’s government focusing on building infrastructure in areas of power generation, transportation, roads and medical facilities (Meed Media, 2013). Whilst project activity in the country does provide strong opportunities for project management organisations, the successful execution of such projects involves the anticipation, recognition and overcoming of diverse types of challenges with specific political, bureaucratic and legal ramifications (Meed Media, 2013). The proposed research study aims to examine the various challenges associated with management of government projects in Saudi Arabia and the providing of appropriate recommendations for overcoming

Similarities Between Judaism And Christianity Religion Essay

Similarities Between Judaism And Christianity Religion Essay The creation of the universe still remains a mystery to many of us. Almost all mankind is obsessed with trying to discover how the creation of everything that exists came about. Some are convinced about the divine existence of God while others are atheist. The religious people are also faced with many differences and disagreement about the existence and the nature of the real God. The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast two specific characteristics that are evident in Christianity and Judaism. As much as there are differences between the two religious groupings, there are also similarities between them. This is because, Christianity emerged and protested from Judaism, but it is not a continuation of Judaism as some people would suppose it to .Therefore, there are various characteristics that makes the two different. The first characteristic is how they define sin and the second is how they define atonement and religious human intercession. Similarities Between Judaism and Christianity Both religions define sin as rebellion, and God has made his will to be known to all people through His word. Acting contrary to this set will against God is a sin. Although Wyschogrod states that Judaism doesnt take the consequences of sin seriously, Plantinga feels Christians should go back to their original religion so that they can understand the consequences of sin. Therefore, both believe that sin has its consequences. God is all powerful and supreme, the only thing he can do is to allow people to sin but he limits the freedom. One of the reasons for allowing the people to sin is so as He can demonstrate his will and achieve his objectives; which could be to demonstrate his love since his lover supersedes his hatred. Therefore both religions believe that God is a God of mercy. God has provided atonement in order to reconcile all his people with him. This shows that whenever people are engaged in sin and have a deep repentance for it, there is a way out for both religions. This cleanses and erases all the sins and the makes man right with God. They both believe that in order to be forgiven, faith must be incorporated with the atonement. Since there is a continuous behavior of rebellion, both religions believe that they live under two principles which include being loyal to God and being rebellious. Therefore, sin is a continuous process and cannot be avoided by any human being.Because of this repentance must be done regularly. Differences in Judaism and Christianity In regard to Sin, Christianitys center of attention is found on The Original Sin which is the sin that committed by Adam and Eve while they were in the Garden of Eden and continues on from that generation to this generation we are living today .While Judaisms center of attention on Sin which means the continuous sins committed after a person is born, thus proving that at birth a person is with no sin. Therefore, according to Judaism, repentance is done for disobedience done either intentionally or unintentionally after the person is born while for Christianity, repentance is done for an entire persons life since his birth even to the extend of repenting the sins of a former generation. While reviewing the Holy Bible in Genesis chapter 3, the two religions interpret this differently. According to the Christian perspective, when Adam and Eve sinned, the glory of God in them was taken away, thus making the whole creation perverted. While in Judaism, when Adam and Eve sinned, God made them to suffer the consequences by only chasing them out of the Garden of Eden but never meant that sin will follow their forthcoming generation. Christianitys element of redemption that is meant to return the glory of God which was lost after Adam and Eve sinned in the garden of Eden is only through Jesus Christ who is claimed to be God in the flesh and a part of the Holy trinity, cleanses the sins of the whole world for those who accept this redemption. The Judaism element of redemption is done through is through prayer which cleanses the sin impartially, and full cleansing is done after they ask for forgiveness from the people. According to Judaism Jesus was just a good man and was not reincarnation of God into mankind, he has no powers to save souls as Christianity perceives and believes it to be, and he never resurrected from the dead. Since piece has never reigned in this world. Judaism has never approved Jesus as the Prince of Peace and the Messiah. They claim that the Prince of Peace shall rule the world later and peace shall dominate this whole world. But Christianity believes Jesus as the Prince of peace and the promised Messiah and all them that accept this divinity have peace in their minds and souls. Furthermore, Judaism continues to state that God is one. God cannot be made of three parts which are termed as the Holy trinity, even though Christianity claims it to be a mystery. They claim that this can be compared to pagans who worship many god and that the capacity of claiming that God is in three parts diminishes the preeminence of his power. Therefore, it has no room for Jesus having a position of being God the Son. This is opposed by Christianity since according to the Bible in the Book of John 1:1, 14 which claims that In the beginning there was the word, and the word was with God and the word was God. The word became flesh and dwelt among us in this world. As much as there are differences and similarities, only time can tell since Christianity is based on faith. There is no religion that can be placed above the other. Its hard for worshipers also to judge themselves since they can not identify and accept easily their shortcomings since it may be to their disadvantage. Therefore, judgment is left to God alone.

Health Pathway Case Study Essay examples -- Nursing and Midwifery Prof

This paper discusses the unsatisfactory professional conduct displayed by the Clinical Specialist nurse (CNS) in the provided case study. There are four main points of conduct that need to be discussed firstly the lack of an appropriate assessment of the patient’s condition being undertaken. Secondly the obvious lack of appropriate documentation that was recorded during and after the consultation. Thirdly the fact the medical officer (MO) was never informed nor did any requests be made for the doctor to examine the patient. Finally the illegal dispensing of an S11 prescription drug that being the Panadeine Forte the CNS gave to the client at the hospital and the packet she dispensed for him to take home. The nurse did not â€Å"practise in a safe and competent Manner† (2013, p. 2), â€Å"in accordance with the standards of the profession and broader health system† (2013, p. 2) nor did she†practise and conduct herself in accordance with the laws relevant t o the profession and practice of nursing† (2013, p. 2). These are Statements 1, 2 and 3 consecutively of the code of professional conduct for nurses in Australia. Unsatisfactory professional conduct can be defined as any practice under taken by a health professional which is deemed considerably below the standards expected of said professionals training and experience or includes any violations of National law, and/or breaches of the code of professional conduct for Nurses and Midwives in Australia (2013, p. 2) (Professional standards) (Definition of Unsatisfactory Professional Conduct and Professional Misconduct). In this case the CNS stated she had around twenty years’ experience in Emergency Nursing including taking an advanced trauma course (2012, p. 8)Thereby not acting within he... ...ved May 1st, 2014, from Australasian legal infromation institute: http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/repealed_act/nama1991223/s4.html planning, S. a. (2012, April 10th). Rural Adult Emergency Clinical Guidelines 3rd Edition Version 3.1 2012. Retrieved May 5th, 2014, from NSW government health: http://www0.health.nsw.gov.au/policies/gl/2012/pdf/GL2012_003.pdf Professional standards. (n.d.). Retrieved April 15th, 2014, from Nurses and midwifery board New south Wales: http://nursesstaging.elcom.com.au/professional-standards/default.aspx Services, L. a. (17, November 2013). Medication Handling in NSW Public Health Facilities. Retrieved May 10th, 2014, from NSW government Health: http://www0.health.nsw.gov.au/policies/pd/2013/pdf/PD2013_043.pdf Staunton, P. C. (2013). Law for Nurses and Midwives (7th ed.). (D. Vukelich, Ed.) Chatswood, NSW, Australia: ELsevier.

Pepsi vs Coke Brand Positioning

Week 5: Branding and Positioning Reading: * Articles – Please be sure to read all articles and view all videos listed. They are short but insightful. 1. Interbrand Names 100 Best Global Brands http://www. marketingpilgrim. com/2010/09/interbrand-names-100-best-global-brands. html 2. What P&G Taught Me About Brands http://maxbrandequity. com/Documents/What%20PG%20taught%20me%20about%20Brands. pdf 3. The Power of Brand Equity http://www. thinkingleaders. om/archives/964 Questions: Write what you believe are the current global brand positionings for Coke and Pepsi (the brands, not the companies)? Few other companies in the world have been able to construct and manage their brands as well as these companies. Much of the successful of these companies can be attributed to way in which they have managed their soft drink brands. Coke has positioned itself as an integral, crucial part of people’s everyday lives.The brand, particularly through its commercials, creates intimac y with its consumers by evoking memories and experiences with the brand and their unique selling proposition â€Å"live the Coke side of life† is a prime example of this. It’s an invitation to live on the positive side of life, with Coke. It invites people to create their own positive reality and overall says, only Coke will do because essentially, Coke is happiness in a bottle. Importantly, from a global marketing perspective, it allows each country the opportunity to interpret their own moments of happiness and the brand’s role in those moments.Pepsi’s new global brand positioning (announced this year) is reflected in their caption â€Å"Live for Now† which invites and inspires Pepsi fans to live each moment to the fullest through a breadth of global, pop-culture platforms, including relationships with music and entertainment brand evangelists, digital innovation, epic events and unique partnerships. This positioning enables the brand to pursue n ew partnerships with some of the world’s leading artists and entertainment properties.Do you believe the global positioning is different from the positioning these brands are utilizing in your home country? If yes, please provide the positioning in your home country and explain why you think it is different. The global positioning of Coke and Pepsi is the same around the world by way of general theme and overall message, however due to the differences in culture and society across the globe, the execution of the company’s respective positionings must be different for each of the markets that they serve.As each country/region of the world is quite different, it is imperative that the message is tailored in a way that is relevant and best captures the target market. For example, the recent Coke advertisement in Australia depicts a group of friends playing around on a boat off the coast (presumably of Australia) which clearly taps into the Australian beach culture. This m essage of joy and happiness is still carried but it’s made more relevant to the particular market which it is serving by the way in which the message is constructed and contextualised.The Interbrand report indicates that the Coke brand is much more valuable as an asset than the Pepsi brand. Please explain why you believe this is true, being sure to comment on: a. Strength of positioning – Coke has positioned itself more emotively than Pepsi as is evident in many of Coke‘s advertisements over the years which moreso depict the human experience through a strong emphasis on families and the community. b.Key points of parity and points of difference – both emotive in their message, but different in that Coke really taps into the general consumer’s happy experience with the brand, whereas Pepsi I believe is more targeted (particularly to the youth market) and has the image of being high-energy and action-oriented, and I think a large part of their target audience associate themselves with the brand because of that image. They are similar in that both brands consider themselves to be bold and refreshing. c.Whether any of these points of difference are competitive advantages – Coke’s positioning, with its strong association to feelings of joy and happiness, I believe gives it a competitive advantage in that these feelings and positive connections with happiness give it timeless appeal, whereas Pepsi seems to be more in-the-moment and almost â€Å"timely† by comparison. Coke, I feel, represents a state of permanent happiness whereas Pepsi is all about excitement, which we all know, is an emotion that is often fleeting. This position of happiness/longevity, I believe, is more attractive to consumers. . Line extension strategy Having a strong brand that consumers are loyal to allows an organization to extend its line of products and bring to market new products more easily.If Coke’s brand is stronger and bette r positioned (which I believe it is), then by extension, it will be of greater value since the introduction of new products can more easily be made, and therefore, new revenue streams open up for the company. There are, of course, risks associated with line extension, however if managed well, leveraging an existing brand can be of enormous financial benefit to a company. . International presence – I think Coke’s broader appeal to such human states as joy and happiness allows the brand to resonate more strongly across cultures whereas Pepsi, with its greater reliance on pop-culture and entertainment artists makes it more restricted in its global reach. Clearly, Michael Jackson will have less appeal in a developing country than in the United States, however Coke’s association with feelings of joy, family and life more generally can, as a message, be more easily carried across borders and into countries.

Gender and Leadership: Literature Review

Gender and Leadership Literature Review 1. Introduction Leadership theories and literature describe what leaders should do and on the other hand literature also exists on what leaders actually do, the former are prescriptive and the latter are descriptive (Bratton et al; 2005). Leadership style is a relatively consistent set of behaviours that characterise a leader (DuBrin; 1995). The main leadership theories encompass the trait, behaviour, contingency, power influence, and gender influence and exchange leadership perspectives. This paper focuses on transformational leadership and thus will detail the theory underpinning transformational leadership vis a vis gender differences in leadership. A brief discussion on Leadership effectiveness as it relates to gender and Leadership styles will also be shown. In a study of gender and leadership styles it is important to highlight the deeper foundations that have a bearing on why men and women may lead differently. One of those causes has been found to be culture; a brief review of this construct and its’ bearing on gender has also been outlined in this section. . 2Gender and Leadership Swanepoel et al (2003) define gender as a â€Å"demographic factor that may influence Human Resources Management in organisations and which can lead to similar problems of discrimination in the workplace†. DuBrin (1995) state that the terms sex and gender arouse controversy both scientifically and politically. He further states that the term gender refers to perception s about the differences among males and females whilst sex differences refer to actual tangible differences such as the fact that the mean height of men is greater than that of women. The terms gender and sex are, however, often used interchangeably. Task and interpersonal styles in leadership research are obviously relevant to gender because of the stereotypes people have about sex differences in these aspects of behaviour (Ashmore, Del Boca, & Wohlers, 1986; Eagly & Steffen, 1984). Men are believed to be more self-assertive and motivated to control their environment (e. g. , more aggressive, independent, self-sufficient, forceful, and dominant). In contrast, women are believed to be more selfless and concerned with others (e. . , more kind, helpful, understanding, warm, sympathetic, and aware of others' feelings). Although democratic versus autocratic style is a different (and narrower) aspect of leader behaviour than task-oriented and interpersonally oriented styles (see Bass, 1981), the democratic- autocratic dimension also relates to gender stereotypes, because one component of these stereotypes is that men are relatively dominant and controlling (i. e. , mor e autocratic and directive than women. Bratton et al (2005) highlight a study conducted by Schein (1975) who extended the gender issue in Leadership further with the results confirming that to both the male and female managers who participated in the study; being a successful manager meant being masculine in terms of stereotypical behaviours (Bratton et al, 2005). Wajcman in Bratton, Grint and Nelson stated, â€Å"Some leadership behaviours are interpreted differently depending on the gender of the leader. For example, a particular action seen as â€Å"firm† when displayed by a man (e. , banging the table top with the hand) might be termed â€Å"hysterical† when displayed by a woman. † (Bratton et al; 189). Women are said to find participative management more natural than men because they feel more comfortable interacting with people and that their natural sensitivity encourages group members to participate in decision- making (Dubrin; 1995). Yet as women move up the corporate ladder, their identifica tion with the male model of corporate success becomes important and may even reject the few feminine traits that they may earlier have endorsed. Bass (1998) in his review of studies other than his own concludes that there is no consistent pattern of male-female differences in leadership styles. Modern theory proposes that women lead differently than men (Bratton et al; 2005). This theory tends to promote the idea that women have the characteristics and skill that are necessary for effective leadership and that these skills and characteristics include a more interactional leadership style, the ability to build consensus, a tendency to empower others, and a greater ability to nurture others (Bratton et al; 2005). Robbins (date) in Swanepoel et al (2003) points out that the similarities between women and men tend to outweigh the differences, and that these differences suggest that men are comfortable with a directive style while female managers prefer a democratic style (Swanepoel et al; 2003). The gender perspective argues that women leaders have an interactive, people centered, participative management style. Women leaders are associated with consensus building and power sharing. Views in favour of the gender perspective advocate for equal opportunities at the work place; full utilization of women to utilize available human resources; acknowledgement of the â€Å"special contribution† women can make the work place due to their leadership style and alternate approaches to situations (Bratton, et al; 2005). Swanepoel et al (2003) state that in general women follow a transformational leadership style, which emphasises followers, consensus, and the use of charisma, personal reference and personal contact to enhance interpersonal relations and to influence followers. Men, however prefer a more direct style where job performance is seen as transactional and they also tend to use formal position, power and authority to control people. To tackle the question of whether men and women have different leadership styles, Eagly and Johnson conducted a 1990 review of leadership studies. Notably, although lab studies viewed women as both interpersonally oriented and democratic and men to be both task-oriented and autocratic, field studies indicated a difference on only one of those dimensions: The omen were found to be more democratic, encouraging participation, and the men were more autocratic, directing performance. http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss A 2003 meta-analysis extended those results and indicated that women were slightly more likely than men to have the transformational leadership style. Women also appeared to reward good performance more than men, a very positive part of transactional leadership. Men were more likely to criticize subo rdinates and be less hands-on, styles found to be ineffective. http: www. psychologymatters. rg/womanboss. However, psychologists caution against concluding that women or men have some sort of natural or inherent leadership style. There is a possibility that women, knowing how negatively people respond to â€Å"bossy† women, soften their approach. Additionally, the research shows only averages, or tendencies, for each sex. Some men will have more â€Å"feminine† management styles; some women will have more â€Å"masculine† management styles. (http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) Eagly's advice is to be careful about the power of perception. She says that even though the research found some differences in leadership style, â€Å"the sex differences are small because the leader role itself carries a lot of weight in determining people's behaviour. † She concludes that women are in some senses better leaders than men but suffer the disadvantage of leadership roles having a masculine image, especially in some settings and at higher levels. Stripping organizational leadership of its masculine aura would allow psychologists to get a clearer picture of any true differences between men and women. http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) Eagly and Johnson highlighted the following summaries from their review;† The preponderance of available evidence is that no consistently clear pattern of differences can be discerned in the supervisory style of female as compared to male leaders† (Bass, 198 l, p. 499);†There is as yet no research evidence that makes a case for sex differences in either leadership aptitude or style† (Kanter, 1977a, p. 199); â€Å"In general, comparative research indicates that there are few differences in the leadership styles of female and male designated leaders† (Bartol & Martin, 1986, 19. 278). However Quantitative reviews of this research have established the presence rather than the absence of overall sex differences (Eagly, 1987; Eagly & Wood, in press; Hall, 1984). These differences, although typically not large, tend to be comparable in magnitude to most other findings reported in social psychological research. (http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) 3. 3 Cultural Dimension – the link to gender Several theories have been put forward to account for gender differences including biological differences, differences in early childhood and the fulfilment of culturally prescribed gender role expectations. Thomas and Bendixen (2000) refer to Thomas and Ely (1996) who capture the essence of cultural issues in organisations when they state that employees make choices at work based on their cultural background (Thomas and Bendixen; 2000). It is thus important for organisations to understand these values that employees bring into the workplace (Thomas and Bendixen; 2000). Thomas and Bendexin (2000) also lean on Trompenaars (1993) who identified different levels of culture, noting that national culture is at the highest level whilst organisational culture is at the next level down in the hierarchy of culture. Gender related differences in leadership styles may have a foundation in culture. Schein (1990) defines organisational culture as â€Å"a pattern of basic assumptions, invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore is to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems. † (Schein, 1990; 111). He further identifies three levels at which culture manifests itself as observable artefacts, values, and basic underlying assumptions (Schein, 1990). Observable artefacts are things that one sees or feels upon entering an organisation. This includes the dress code, the physical layout, the smell and feel of the place to the more tangible things such as the annual reports and company records (Schein, 1990). â€Å"Through interviews, questionnaires, or survey instruments one can study a culture’s espoused and documented values, norms, ideologies, charters, and philosophies. (Schein, 1990; 112). More direct questioning can reveal the more the underlying assumptions, which â€Å"determine perceptions, thought processes, feelings and behaviour† (Schein, 1990; 112) For Edgar Schein (1985) the transformation that matters is a change in the corporate culture. What do leaders pay attention to, measure, and control sends symbolic signals to the rest of the corporate culture. Ho fstede is a central figure in the development of literature on the cultural construct in leadership (Dickson, Hartog & Mitchelson; 2003). He advances the idea that cultural differences are initially encountered as differences in shared values with values being defined as tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others (Dickson et al; 2003). Hofstede (1980,2001) described initially four culture dimensions; individualism-collectivism; masculinity-femininity; uncertainty avoidance; and power distance and a fifth dimension, future orientation was added in later work (Dickson et al; 2003). Power distance is â€Å"the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally†. Hofstede (in Dickson, Harthog & Mitchelson, 2003, pg 737). Uncertainty avoidance is defined as the extent to which the members of a society feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations (Dickson et al p. 740). Individualism versus collectivism ranges from societies in which the ties between individuals are â€Å"loose† and people are expected to take care of themselves and close family only to societies that are â€Å"tight† where people expect their â€Å"in-group to look after them and they do so in return (Dickson, et al. 2003). Masculinity versus femininity ranges from societies in which social gender roles are clearly distinct to societies in which social gender roles overlap (Dickson, et al. ; 2003). This dimension has a direct bearing on gender issues in that societal roles determine gender roles and these ultimately have a bearing on the leadership style that one practices, In her exploration of African management van der Colff (2003) uses the African tree concept advanced by Mbigi (1996). According to this concept the main stem underpinning all the most important values of African History can be traced through ubuntu, which is the key to all African values and involves collectivism (van der Colff; 2003). â€Å"Traditionally African leadership is built on participation, responsibility and spiritual authority†. (van der Colff; 2003,258). Nussbaum (1996) in van der Colff (2003) is quoted as saying that African leadership requires transparency, accountability and legitimacy. The only way they can be legitimate is to be trustworthy themselves before they can expect trust from employees (van der Colff; 2003). Bass (1997) has argued that transformational leadership is universally applicable. He proposed, that regardless of culture, transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the group or organization, followers become motivated to expend greater effort than would would usually be expected. While acknowledging the universality of transformational leadership, Bass recognized that cultural differences will contribute to differences at the individual level of measurement. He stated â€Å"Variation occurs because the same concepts may contain specific thought processes, beliefs, implicit understandings, or behaviors in one culture not another† (p. 132). This raises the question of the universality of gender differences in transformational leadership. Although there have been several studies on gender differences in America, unknown is the extent that these findings are replicated in other cultures. This study will show some findings of transformational leadership with a Zimbabwean sample. 3. 4. Transformational Leadership theory From a broad perspective, leadership styles can be transformational and transactional; a transformational leadership style is one that seeks to influence behaviour through inspirational and motivational means. Transactional leadership styles use contingency factors such as rewards and punishment to influence and affect behaviour (Densten, Gray & Sarros, 2002). The transactional leadership theories emphasise transactions between leaders and their followers. Transactional leaders get things done by giving contingent rewards such as recognition and pay increases. These leaders usually manage by exception to monitor performance and take corrective action to remedy poor performance. They motivate followers by clarifying role and task requirements (Swanepoel; 2003). Transformational leadership was first coined by Burns (1978) and further developed by Bass (1985, 1998) and Yammarino & Bass, (1990) with research accumulating in the area over the past fourteen years. Transformational leadership is defined in terms of four inter-related factors: idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration. Taken together, these sub-types are believed to represent the most effective attitudes and behaviours a leader can have. (Panopoulos; 1998). The transformational characteristic of idealised influence is based on earlier conceptualisations of charisma (e. g. House, 1977). The charismatic leader is able to inspire respect and higher order motivation in followers. The leader is able to communicate a sense of power and confidence in higher values and beliefs. The charismatic leader possesses a clear set of idealised qualities with which followers might wish to be associated (Panapoulos; 1998). The leader who provides inspirational motivation to followers is likely to speak optimistically about the future, articulating a compelling vision of what must be achieved. He motivates followers by his/her own enthusiasm. The leader is therefore not merely a distant charismatic source of referent power but is also able to directly and effectively translate his/her own enthusiasm to followers (Panapoulos; 1998). The leader must also provide intellectual stimulation to followers. In providing intellectual stimulation, the leader is said to orient ollowers to awareness of problems, to their own thoughts and imagination, and to the recognition of their beliefs and values (Yammarino & Bass, 1990 in Panapoulos; 1998). Furthermore, by providing an intellectually stimulating environment, transformational leaders are able to foster the development of creative solutions to problems, which stand in the way of organisational goal attainment. Panapoulos (1998) states that from a humanistic persp ective, the most outstanding component of transformational leadership is the leader’s individualised consideration of his/her followers. According to Bass and his colleagues (Yammarino, Spangler & Bass, 1993 in Panapoulos; 1998), a leader’s use of individual consideration is a crucial element in followers’ achievement of their full potential through a close consideration of their developmental needs. In providing individual consideration, the leader is not only aware of and sensitive to the current needs of followers, but is also aiming to elevate those needs to a higher level (in combination with the use of the other factors of transformational leadership). This can be done by coaching and mentoring, as well as by setting examples and tasks, which are developmentally consistent with the needs of each individual (Panapoulos; 1998). Gender differences in transformational leadership – A review of past research A number of authors have speculated on possible gender differences in the use of transformational leadership (e. g. , Avolio & Bass, 1988; Bycio, Hackett, & Allen, 1995), however, there has been a notable lack of evidence (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Bass contends there are none. Yet, other studies show that women develop a â€Å"feminine style of leadership,† which is characterized by caring and nurturance, and men adopt a â€Å"masculine style of leadership†, which is dominating and task- oriented (Eagly, Makhijani, & Klonsky, 1992). In a study of 345 metropolitan branch managers Carless (1998) found that: Female managers are more likely than male managers to report that they take an interest in the personal needs of their staff, encourage self-development, use participative decision-making, give feedback and publicly recognize team achievements. In summary, female managers report they use more interpersonal-oriented leadership behaviors compared to male managers (Carless, 1998). The review by Eagly and Johnson was the first systematic and comprehensive analysis of gender differences in leadership. Earlier reviews (e. g. , Bartol & Martin, 1986; Dobbins & Platz, 1986) were based on limited samples and were criticized because they failed to specify the selection criteria for inclusion in the review. Eagly and Johnson's (1990) meta-analysis of gender differences in leadership revealed mixed findings. An analysis of task-oriented style and interpersonal oriented style showed that women and men did not differ on these dimensions in organizational studies. Differences were noted for studies in which the sample did not formally hold a leadership position (experimental and assessment studies). On the other hand, significant gender differences were reported in the use of democratic leadership in organizational, experimental and assessment studies. Women used a more participative and inclusive style of leadership and men were more likely to use a directive, controlling style. Carless, 1998). Studies which have used the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ; Bass, 1985b; Avolio, et al. , 1995) to examine gender differences in leadership style have reported conflicting findings. Bass, Avolio and Atwater (1996) examined gender differences in leader behaviour with three samples. Sample I consisted of 79 female and 150 male upper-level leaders who worked for American hi-tec, Fortune 50 f irms. Subordinate ratings of leadership (N = 877) indicated that female leaders were rated higher on all transformational leader behaviors compared to male leaders. These findings are consistent with an earlier study of leaders in the Roman Catholic church (Druskat, 1994). Sample 2, consisted of first-level supervisors employed by a number of organizations, 38 of the leaders were female and 58 were male. Subordinates (N = 271) observed no gender differences for the subscales of Intellectual Stimulation and Inspirational Motivation, however, females were reported as higher on the subscales of Charisma and Individual Consideration. Sample 2 findings were consistent with an earlier study reported by Bass and Avolio (1994). Generally, in studies that report significant differences between females and males the effect sizes are very small and it is therefore argued that there is no practical differences between female and male leaders (Yammarino, Dubinsky, Comer & Jolson, 1997). In the third sample of 154 female leaders and 131 male leaders who worked for nonprofitable organizations (e. g. health care), subordinates (N = 913) reported no differences in the leader behavior of females and male leaders. Similary, Komives (1991) found no difference between female and male manager self-ratings of transformational leadership, with the exception of Intellectual Stimulation; women managers were found to be significantly higher than their male counterparts(Carless,1998). According to the gender-centred perspective, individual attributes vary according to their gender (Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987; Hennig & Jardin, 1977; Loden, 1985). This approach proposes that, women develop a feminine style of leadership, which is characterized by caring and nurturance, and men adopt a masculine style of leadership, which is dominating and taskoriented (Eagly, Makhijani, & Klonsky, 1992). Similarly, the social-role theory (Eagly, 1987) proposes that individuals behave in accordance with societal expectations about their gender role. Through the socialization process, people learn to conform to cultural expectations about their gender role. The feminine model of leadership includes typical transformational leadership behaviors, for example, participatory decision-making, collaboration and quality interpersonal relationships between leader and subordinate (Eagly, Karau, Miner & Johnson, 1994; Helgesen, 1990; Loden, 1985). Hence, it could be expected that females and males may differ in their use of certain transformational leadership behaviors(Carless,1998). The structural perspective suggests that the organizational role the individual occupies is more important then the gender of the individual (Kanter, 1977). Within organizations clear guidelines exist for the expected performance of managers, hence the major issue for managers is meeting the organization's expectations regarding effective management performance, not conforming to culturally defined gender roles. Assuming female and male managers occupy the same role within an organization and have equivalent access to status and power there is no reason to expect gender differences in leadership styles (Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani, 1995). This suggests that when examining gender differences in leadership behavior it is important to compare women and men who occupy the same position in the organization and are at the same level in the organizational hierarchy. (Carless ,1998). Eagly and her colleagues (Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Eagly, et al. , 1995) suggest that gender differences vary according to the extent of gender congeniality. Gender congeniality is described as the â€Å"fit between gender roles and particular leadership roles† (Eagley, et al. , 1995, p. 29). It reflects an individual's interest in a specific leadership role and appraisal of their competence to perform that role. In some organizations, such as the military, leadership positions are defined in more masculine terms than feminine. Thus, leadership positions in these organizations would be described as congenial to men. In others, such as education and nursing, leadership is defined in more feminine ways and therefore could be described as conge nial to women(Carless, 1998). 3. 5Effective Leadership Since women began to climb the corporate ladder, authorities have asked if they have what it takes to lead groups and organizations. According to the research, while men and women are equally effective in some settings, more often effectiveness depends on the fit between the setting and management gender. For example, women's typically more mentoring, coaching style is more favorably received in female-dominated professions; men's more typically â€Å"command and control† style is well received in male-dominated professions. http: www. sychologymatters. org/womanboss . In essence therefore, all things being equal, men and women are equally effective. But given varied work settings and a workplace whose top managers are still more likely to be male, all things rarely are equal. For example, women are slightly more likely to be â€Å"transformational† leaders, serving as role models, helping employees develop their skills, and motivating them to be dedicated and creative. That approach may actually be more effective in today's less hierarchical organizations. But not all workplaces are alike: The participatory style may backfire in traditional male settings such as the military or organized sports. Conversely, the command-and-control style more typical of men may backfire in a social-service agency or retail outlet. (http:www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) A 1995 review by Alice Eagly, PhD, Steven Karau, PhD and Mona Makhijani, PhD, of more than 80 different studies found that when aggregated over the organizational and laboratory experimental studies in the sample, male and female leaders were equally effective. The leaders or managers assessed in the studies were typically first-level or first-line supervisors, with a strong minority of studies looking at mid-level managers or managers of mixed or unknown levels. The analysis also showed that women were more effective leaders in female-dominated or female-oriented settings, and that men were more effective leaders in male-dominated or male-oriented settings. Thus working in a leadership role congruent with one's gender gives the perception that one is more effective. (http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) Theories of transformational leadership (e. . , Bass, 1985a; Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Kouzes & Posner, 1987; Sashkin & Burke; 1990; Trice & Beyer, 1986) have focused on identifying a range of leadership behaviors which contribute to effective performance. Although these theories differ in the leadership behaviors they distinguish, there exists a number of common themes. Transformational leaders articulate a vision, use lateral or non traditional thinking, encourage individual development, give regular feedback, use participative decision-making, and promote a cooperative and trusting work environment. http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) Densten, et al. ; (2002) emphasise that successful leaders are able to build a strong corporate culture, are truth-tellers, can see the invisible, that is, spot potential winners or identify trends before their rivals or customers, are fast learners and good communicators. Leaders are expected to anticipate future events before they occur and have a vision to overcome uncertainties. Managers on the other hand are expected to run current operations effectively and efficiently (Bratton, et al. ; 2005). Darling in Swanepoel, Erasmus et al argues â€Å"a real test of successful leadership in management lies in giving, to the greatest extent possible, opportunities to others within the situational context of the firm. One does not have to be brilliant to be a good leader, but you have to understand people- how they feel, what makes them tick, and the most effective ways to influence them. †(Swanepoel, Erasmus, Van Wyk, Schenk; 359) DuBrin (1995) state that in order to be a leader one has to make a difference and to facilitate positive changes. They further state that the common characteristic of effective leaders is their ability to inspire and stimulate others to achieve worthwhile goals (Dubrin; 1995). Drucker (2004) outlines eight practices followed by effective executives. He says that they ask, â€Å"What needs to be done? † and â€Å"What is right for the enterprise†. Effective executives also develop action plans, they take responsibility for decisions and communicating, focus on opportunities rather than problems, run productive meetings and focus on â€Å"we† rather than â€Å"I† (Drucker; 2004). Drucker (2004) further explains that the first two practices gives them the knowledge they need, the next four help to convert this knowledge to effective action and the last two ensure that the whole organization feels responsible and accountable. Researchers are especially interested in the question of whether a management style more associated with women – a less authoritarian, more nurturing approach – will â€Å"click† as the workplace generally shifts to more team-oriented structures that thrive under a less directive approach. REFERENCES Ashforth BE & Saks M. 996: Socialization Tactics: Longitudinal Effects on Newcomer Adjustment, Academy of Management Journal, 39, 147-178 Alvesson M & BillingYD. 1997:Understanding gender in organisations. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectation. New York: Free Press. Bass, B. M. (1990). From transactional to transformational leadership: Learning to share the vision. Organizational Dynamics, (Winter): 19-31. Bass, B. , & Avolio, B. (1994). Shatter the glass ceiling: Women may make better managers. Human Resource Management, 33, 549-560. Bass, B. , Avolio, B. , & Atwater, L. (1996). The transformational and transactional leadership of men and women. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 45, 5-34. Bennis W. 1992: On the Leading Edge of Change, Executive Excellence v9n4? Spacing? Check your referencing guidelines (Apr), p5-6 Bloodgood M, Bolino MC, Lester SW & Turnley WH. 2002 Not Seeing Eye to eye: differences in supervisor and subordinate perceptions of and attributions for psychological contract breach, Journal of Occupational Psychology 23 (2); 39 Bendixen M & Thomas A. 000: The Management Implications of Ethnicity in South Africa, Journal of International Business Studies, 31, 3,507-519 Blunt P& Jones ML. 1996: Exploring the limits of Western leadership theory in East Asia and Africa, Personnel Review, 26,1/2,6-23 Bratton J, Grint K & Nelson DL: 2005. Organisational Leadership: Ohio: South-Western Thomson Bronwell J. 1992: â€Å"Women in hospitality management†. In Kay C & Monarz E. 2005: Lodging man agement success: Personal antecedents, achievements, KSAs and situational factors, Hospitality Management, 25: 324-341. Butterfield, A. and Grinnel, J. P. (1999). Re-viewing gender, leadership, and managerial behavior: Do three decades of research tell us anything? In G. N. Powell (Ed. ), Handbook of gender and work. Thousand Oaks, Calif. : Sage Carless SA. 1998: Gender differences in transformational leadership: an examination of superior, leader, and subordinate perspectives. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, Carli LL. and Eagly A H. 2001: Gender, hierarchy, and leadership: an introduction. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 629-636. Colff L. 003: Leadership lessons from the African tree, Journal of Management Decision, 41(3), 257-261 Cooper DR. & Schindler PS. 2003: Business Research Methods: New York: McGraw Hill Denston LI, Gray J & Sarros JC. 2002: Leadership and its impact on organisational culture, International Journal of Business Studies, 10 (2): 1-26 Denton. M & Vloeberghs D. 2003: Leadership challenges for organisations in the New South Africa, Journal of Leadership & Organisational Development , 24(2), 84-95 Dickson MW, Hartog DN & Mitchelson JK. 003: Research on leadership in a cross-cultural context: Making progress, and raising new questions, The Leadership Quarterly 14, 729-768 Drucker PF. 2004: What makes an effective executive, Harvard Business Review, 59-63 DuBrin AJ. 1995: Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills: Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company Eagly AH. Johannesen-Schmidt MC. & van Engen M. 2003: Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin, 95, pp. 569-591. Eagly AH. and Johannesen-Schmidt M. 001: The leadership styles of women and men. Journal of Social Issues, 57, pp. 781-797. Eagly AH. & Johnson BT. 1990: â€Å"Gender and Leadership Style: A Meta-analysis†, Psychological Bulletin 108, pp. 233-256 Eagly AH. Karau SJ and Makhijani MG. 1995: Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 117, pp. 125-145. Hogg MA. 2001: â€Å"A Social Identity theory of Leadership†, personality and social psychology review, 5, 3, 184-200 Javidan M & House RJ. 2001: Cultural acumen for the global manager: Lessons from project GLOBE. Organisational Dynamics, 29(4), 289-305 Jung DI, Bass BM, & Sosik J J. 1995: Bridging leadership and culture: A theoretical consideration of transformational leadership and collectivistic cultures. Journal of Leadership Studies, 2, 3-18 Panapoulos F. No date: Gender differences in transformational leadership among the field leaders of New South Wales Police students: http:www. aic. gov. au/conferences/policewomen2/Panapoulos Accessed on 2006/06/5 Rosener J. 1990: â€Å"Ways Women Lead† Harvard Business Review 68, pp. 119-125. Rousseau DM, Tijoriwala AS. 998: Assessing psychological contracts: issues, alternatives and measures, organisational culture, Journal of Organisational Behaviour, 19:679-695 Schein E. 1990: â€Å"Organisational Culture† American Psychologist , 45: 109-119 Swanepoel B, Erasmus B, Van Wyk M & Schenk H. 2003: South African Human Resource Management: Theory & Practice. 3rd Edition. Cape Town: Juta & Company Unknown. No date: When the boss is a woman, Men and women are equally effective in settings that match gender roles:http:www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss. Accessed on 2006/08/25

Tortilla Flat essays

Tortilla Flat essays 1) Primarily post World War I, with the preface occurring before the war-during prohibition. Uphill of the Californian coastal city of Monterey lies the town of Tortilla Flat. It is inhabited by the paisanos, a hardy, simple race of men descended from the Spanish, the Indians, the Mexicans, and half a dozen other Caucasian heritages. When Danny arrived home from the war he discovered that his grandfather had died and left him the two houses in Tortilla Flat. The weight of the property immediately brings out the worst in Danny. 2) Danny: Leader of the pack, protagonist, owns the two houses. Pilon: The thinker of the group, spiritual, like the beauty of nature. Mr. Torrelli: Bootlegger, wealthy man, holds the towns wine supply. 3) Justifying Crime - Yes, Danny and his paisano friends are thieves, but they never commit a crime because they find it pleasurable to be doing something wrong or out of spite for someone. They only commit crimes when they can justify them to their admittedly loose moral system. They steal the picnic foods, for example, because it was cruel of the picnickers to show off their luxury in such a way, and because they needed something to smooth the way in talking to Danny about his house that they burned down. Most of their crimes are victimless, and the rest fit into the 'rob the rich to feed the poor' mentality reminiscent of Robin Hood. The pompous restaurant owners who would have thrown food out anyway, the railroad tycoons who could afford to lose a few nails and who were destroying their precious landscape anyway, and the miser Torrelli, who had so much wine and money that whatever they took meant nothing to him anyway, are a few examples. The greatest thrill for the paisanos is when they can steal for a truly good purpose, as is the case when they raid the warehouse in order to save Teresina Cortez's children. 4) Above I wrote about the paisanos justifying their crimes. I believe that even though ...

12 Author Websites That Get It Right

12 Author Websites That Get It Right 12 Author Websites That Get It Right Now that you’ve learned our 10 Tips on How to Make an Author Website, you’re probably ready to set up shop. If you’re itching to make a big impression but need a boost of creativity to get you started, check out the 12 author websites below. Each website was picked because it features an example of effective and personal author marketing.Take a look, and don’t forget to leave us your thoughts and opinions in the comments!1. David Sedaris: Put your book front and centerAuthors often make the mistake of thinking that people visit their websites just to read their bio. Are you, the author, important? Sure, but your book’s more important. Let people know they’re on an author’s website by making your product the star of the show, as David Sedaris does. A minimalist setup makes it impossible not to notice the main event: David’s new book.Her Contact Follow page - one of the most important spots on any author’s website - tell you exactly where you can find her, and precisely what you will find her doing there:I use Twitter and Tumblr to share links to my daily Billfold posts along with the other freelance writing work I do every week, so they’re great places to follow my vast fast writing output.I use Instagram to share what I’m reading and where I’m going. If you want to know even more about what I’m reading, follow me on Goodreads.Sign up for my TinyLetter to get updates on The Biographies of Ordinary People, upcoming classes, and other relevant news.These days, we have so many different ways of communicating with a person, that it almost feels harder than ever just to connect with someone. Not so on Nicole’s website.Takeaway: Playing hard to get is not a wise move for an indie author. If you’ve achieved the great success of having potential readers, agents, or publishers land on your website, don’t make it hard for them to find you. A dedicated, well-thought-out and well-maintained contact page is key. Author websites tip #12: Make it clear how to reach you. In order to sell books, indie authors need to first invest in their books. Part of this involves using as many of the marketing resources in their arsenal as possible, and this absolutely includes an author website. Each of the examples showcase best practices when it comes to author websites, but remember that your own website shouldn’t simply be a copy of an existing one. Take our tips and make them work for you.And if you need a hand in getting your author website set up, head to the Reedsy marketplace where we have just welcomed a host of talented, professional web designers. To find out more about how these professionals can help you build an online presence and get a free quote, visit our Author Website Design page.If you're looking for even more inspiration, check out an older post of ours on  Author Website Design Inspiration.If any of our tips help you improve your author website - or if your site hits the mark to begin with - drop the link in the comments so we c an check it out!

Infographic Whats a Good SAT Score for College

Infographic What's a Good SAT Score for College SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The definition of a "good" SAT score is tought to pinpoint. It depends significantly on the types of colleges you're looking at and how much you've improved from your baseline scores. The infographic in this article will go through statistics on the national level and at different colleges to give you a better sense of what a good score might mean for you. This data should help you to see your score from a more informed perspective and decide whether you need to keep working on it to make improvements. As you can see, what a "good" SAT score meansfor you will depend heavily on the selectivity of the colleges where you plan on applying. Although the national average is around a 1500, you might need to score much higher than that to get into an extremely competitive school. For Brown, the 75th percentile SAT score for admitted students was a 2310. If you wanted to have a strong chance of being accepted, you would need to shoot for close to a perfect score. In this case, a "good" score for you might be around a 2300. For Texas AM Kingsville, on the other hand, the 75th percentile SAT score for admitted students was a 1470. If you were interested in this school, you would have a strong chance of being accepted with a score that was on par with the national average of a 1500. You can find similar data on average scores for any colleges that interest you by using the method in the last section of the infographic. In general, your goal should be to reach or surpass the 75th percentile score. Even if your score seems good enough now to get into some colleges that you like, it's important to understand that raising your score a couple hundred points will give you a lot more optionsin the application process. This is especially true if you're currently scoring in the 1400-1500 range. You can see on the graph in the second section of the infographic that there is a big jump in the number of schools you can get into with a 1600 versus a 1400. A two hundred point gain is achieveable for any student with some practice, and it could make a huge difference in your opportunities for college. Higher scores will empower you to consider a wider range of schools andfind one that suits you perfectly! What's Next? Are you wondering how this advice translates to the new SAT? Learn more about what a good target score on the new 2016 SAT might look like for you. If you're working on submitting scores to colleges already, read these articles to find out how to send your scores and navigate your options for score choice. If you're currently preparing for the SAT, you should take a look at our guides that will give you helpful strategies for improving your Math, Critical Reading, and Writing scores. Disappointed with your scores? Want to improve your SAT score by 240 points?We've written a guide about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Group Decision Making Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Group Decision Making - Term Paper Example Thus, in cases where decision making involves technical aspects, tools and applications come in handy to the group members, whereas in situations that warrants identifying potential issues and challenges, brainstorming and discussions play an important role. How do groups arrive at decisions that are mutually understood and accepted? What are the different dimensions involved in the group decision making process? These are some of the questions addressed in this paper that illustrates the dynamics of group decision making through practical insights and examples. Group dynamics and decision making process Groups comprising of number of individuals provide an effective platform for enhancing performance at workplace or achieving common goals and objectives that form the primary reason for forming a group. Working in a group is riddled with challenges since individuals from different backgrounds, attitude and opinion come together to work towards common goals (O’Connell & Cuthber tson, 2009). Coordination and cooperation among the group members can be challenging since arriving at a single decision requires mutual understanding and empathy between the group members. The diversity in opinion, outlook and perspective clash at each stage of the decision making process – thereby causing conflict and failure to arrive at a single decision. However, the benefits associated to working in groups cannot be undermined since collaborative ventures can be more fruitful and have expanded potentials in terms of achieving the desired outcomes (foundation coalition, 2011). In order to overcome these challenges decision making process within groups is guided by certain norms and statutes that help the group in arriving at a decision. The effectiveness of decision making in groups is realized in the fact that an individual could not have taken the decision alone, the decision provides a perfect solution to the problem, the decision is based on unbiased inputs provided by group members and contributes to the group objectives (foundation coalition, 2011). Johnson and Johnson in their book (2009) describe five distinct methods of decision making that include decision making by authority, decision making by majority, decision making by minority, decision making by expert and decision making by consensus. Among these methods decision making by expert and consensus are widely used in most scenarios. Group discussions and problem solving processes in groups are often presided by experts who can provide their valuable opinion and views in context that helps the group in making the final decision. Often the expert is one of the members of the groups and in some cases an external individual might be consulted or asked to preside over the discussions to enable the group to take judicious decisions. However, the primary challenge in this decision making approach lies in identifying a key member of the group or external individual who is acknowledged as an ex pert in the given context by all members of the group. â€Å"Group members who do not view the expert as an authority may be reluctant to implement the recommended decision† (O’Connell & Cuthbertson, 2009). Decision making by group consensus is commonly applied in teams working towards common goals and objectives. The term consensus implies that all members of th

Management Report on the Analysis of the Strategic Situation of ARM Essay - 1

Management Report on the Analysis of the Strategic Situation of ARM Holdings - Essay Example The main objective of the report is to understand the strategic initiatives that ARM Holdings takes to gain a formidable stand in the microprocessor market in United Kingdom. Herein the paper focuses on the business and gross environment of the company in regards to the United Kingdom market for microprocessors and then endeavours to understand the strategic initiatives taken by the company in that regard. The paper focuses to understand the strategic position of the company in regards to its different competitors operating in the United Kingdom market. In the second phase the company focuses on the analysis of the industrial and macro environment of the company in regards to the United Kingdom market to understand its relative position in the enhanced market. The paper moves on to discuss the strategic elements incorporated by the business corporation to sustain its competitive and business position in the market. Here the paper incorporates separate strategic tools to evaluate the position of the company in the United Kingdom microprocessor market. After conducting the evaluation of the strategic position of the company in the United Kingdom region in regards to other competitors and general and specific business environment the paper tends to draw effective recommendations. In regards to recommendations it is stated that how the company can help develop on its business and gain a la rger market in the region.

Regulating Units Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Regulating Units - Essay Example A valve positioner is a device which exactly positions a control valve to the required position as per the signal given to it. Positioner senses the valve opening through a position feedback link connected to valve. Controlled external supply air to positioner provides power to positioner to position a valve. A globe valve is that in which inlet and outlet openings are arranged in several ways to suit varying requirements of flow. It can give straight flow, angular flow and cross flow. The major application is to get good flow control. Picture below: Ball valves are stop valves that use a ball to stop or start the flow of fluid. When operated, the ball rotates to a point where the hole through the ball is in line with the valve body inlet and outlet. Picture below: Gate valves are used when a straight-line flow of fluid and minimum restric ­tion is desired. The part that either stops or allows flow through the valve acts somewhat like the opening or closing of a gate and is called, the gate. Butterfly valves are used in a variety of systems aboard ship. These valves can be used effectively in freshwater and saltwater. It consists of a butterfly disc which when rotated determines the flow of liquid through it. It is used for Good flow control at high capacities. Valve positioners compare a control signal to a valve actuator’s position and move the actuator accordingly. The most modern valves come with following specifications. Deadband -

Wall-Mart Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Wall-Mart - Case Study Example Wal-Mart, Target and Kmart are the top retailers in the present American market. Each of them is having more than 1000 stores. Wal-Mart is the king of the ring. It's the number one retailer in United States of America. Target is slowly moving closer to Wal-Mart and has become a tough competitor to Wal-Mart. Kmart has a long history; recently it is trying to emerge from bankruptcy reorganization. Kmart is slowly losing its customers to Wal-Mart. Their strategies include low price and highly qualified customer care service. This factor played an important role in the long-term development of the Hotel. The cheaper prices with high quality service and further free goodies attracted many. Another factor is the customer service. Customer plays an important role in the development of the company because it is the customer who uses the product that was developed by the companies was good at it. Before being bankrupted Kmart was the second best retailer after Wal-Mart. Both companies used different strategies to outsmart each other. They tried different strategies to woo the customers. After coming out from bankruptcy Kmart found that it has lost most of the customers to Wal-Mart and other retailers like Target. Its total net profit also declined considerably. Target took this opportunity to its full advantage and started aggressive campaigning. Though the think tank of Target knew that most of Kmart's customers would go to Wal-Mart rather than coming to Target's stores, they started slashing the prices of the products and announced heavy discounts on them. They used innovative ideas to woo the customers. To maintain its top position Wal-Mart used to slash the rates so that when customers come to purchase the items would buy other products also. These items were termed as loss leaders. Most of the middle class families are Wal-Mart's customers. Target aimed at upper middle class. Because of this stiff competition between Wal-Mart, Kmart, Target, Costco, etc., customer has wide range of choices to choose. Customer can buy products at discount rates. The companies are employing every possible method to woo the customers to their stores. Due to the bankruptcy Kmart lost its most of the investors to other retailing companies. The company that largely profited by this was Wal-Mart that was so much preoccupied of defeating Kmart. Most of the investors purchase bonds. A bond is nothing but a promissory note that the company would repay the sum over a certain period at a certain interest rate. Bonds are also called as debentures. If the company is in trouble and has to be dissolved, bondholders must be paid in full before paying the stockholders.Experts advise the investors to buy both Wal-Mart and Target stock. Both the companies had seen upswing of their net profit in the recent past. In the present market everything sells by brand names, the marketers are expected to put up good brand name products for sale. The purchaser desires to have or own a good brand name product and material with good quality at reasonable and cheaper rate. If the marketers were able to meet this demand of people of the society, definitely there would be a souring business for their product. Wal-Mart from its good service,

Ada Mediation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ada Mediation - Essay Example The State College is an old institution and the college authorities claim that it has historical significance of over 200 years in terms of its architectural structure. The real problem derives from the fact that due to absence of ramps, the student is not able to move freely around, which prevents him from utilizing the resources available in the college. Thus, he is forced to seek help from others to negotiate the tall steps. This causes considerable problems to him and hampers his music practice. The authorities of State College, on the other hand, state that it is hard to make modifications in the building, which will spoil its architectural value of historical significance. Besides, they claim that they will have to incur an expense of over $ 1 million to make the ramp for a single person. They are putting forth this reason to avoid any modifications to the college building to render it ADA compliant. This fact has raised a public issue as it disregards the provisions of the Ame ricans with Disabilities Act (ADA) 1990, enacted by the American Congress. Issues: The present subject raises the question of legal support to the music student in State College. For all practical purposes, this person has been unable to use the facilities to learn music in the college. The ADA emphasizes that all disabled persons have to be extended full facilities in their workplace.

Comparative Business Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Comparative Business Law - Essay Example The negligence was recognized in the famous case Donoghue v Stevenson1. [Peter De Cruz, Comparative law]a It is illustrious case law on tort of negligence; this case is also called as "the snail in the bottle case". Though this case originates from Scots the House of Lords declares that the principle applied in this case apply to the world in common law jurisdiction. This case is fountainhead of the tortious principles say duty to care, breach of duty and causation of loss which are to be established for claiming liability of negligence. In this case the Session court rejected the appeal of the plaintiff on two grounds a) there is no privity of contract between the plaintiff and the manufacturer defendant; b) the product was not a dangerous product and there is no fraudulent misrepresentation from the defendant. It was appealed to the House of Lords by the plaintiff, arguing on the principle of privity of contract. The plaintiff counsel arguing for the removal of the protection provided for the manufacturers under the privity of contract under common law. The defendant side argued on wisdom of the Scottish judges in the mouse case, to prevail. Lord Atkin applies the 'Neighbourhood Principle', which says that a person will owe a duty of care not to injure a person or persons that can be foreseen reasonably which would be affected by the acts or omissions, in case where an established duty of care does not exist. The object of this principle is to provide the remedy against the suppliers of consumer products for tort, where there is no privity of contract. Lords MacMillan and Thankerton supported the opinion. Lords Tomlin and Buckmaster opposed this opining that it would be difficult to carry on the trade it becomes the law since they say that the principle of wide proposition. Remedies in Common Law The basic remedy that the common law provides is the damages. Damages such as liquidated damages, which is a predetermined or estimated value for breach of a contract; Compensatory damages, these damages awarded by the courts where any loss is caused due to a breach of contract or due to an action of a person, it is awarded to put the aggrieved party in the same position had there been no breach of contract or such action; Non Compensatory damages, the courts in certain cases awards non compensatory damages, when it do not aim to compensate the plaintiff, such damages are exemplary, contemptuous and nominal. [Benjamin Andoh and Stephen Marsh]d The remedies in Common law such as damages suffer with certain limitations. The common law puts some limitations and the entitlement of the plaintiff over the damages such as remoteness of damage, causation, duty to litigate, contributory negligence and impecuniosities. [Benjamin Andoh and Stephen Marsh]e Remoteness of damage: Damages will not be avoided where the loss is too remote (Re Polemis and Furness Withy & Co. Ltd.) and which is not foreseeable (Overseas Tankship (U.K.) Ltd. v Morts Dock

Ada Mediation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ada Mediation - Essay Example The State College is an old institution and the college authorities claim that it has historical significance of over 200 years in terms of its architectural structure. The real problem derives from the fact that due to absence of ramps, the student is not able to move freely around, which prevents him from utilizing the resources available in the college. Thus, he is forced to seek help from others to negotiate the tall steps. This causes considerable problems to him and hampers his music practice. The authorities of State College, on the other hand, state that it is hard to make modifications in the building, which will spoil its architectural value of historical significance. Besides, they claim that they will have to incur an expense of over $ 1 million to make the ramp for a single person. They are putting forth this reason to avoid any modifications to the college building to render it ADA compliant. This fact has raised a public issue as it disregards the provisions of the Ame ricans with Disabilities Act (ADA) 1990, enacted by the American Congress. Issues: The present subject raises the question of legal support to the music student in State College. For all practical purposes, this person has been unable to use the facilities to learn music in the college. The ADA emphasizes that all disabled persons have to be extended full facilities in their workplace.

Latino Urbanism in Los Angeles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Latino Urbanism in Los Angeles - Essay Example In this report, research into the Latino community is carried out in all thats considered as common ground by the community (Rojas 44). The research is done on the streets, abandoned train yards, residential home front yards and backyards, designated sacred sites, burial sites, cafà © and shops among other social hubs. The Latino community makes use of all space outdoors, forcing the researcher to base the research on the outdoors. In conducting research on a social platform, James gathered most of the data via personal observation. Since his report is derived from the behavior of the community, observing the community trends is the preferred data gathering technique. Although it is not indicated in the report, James interviewed some of the community members to get a perspective on their mode of living. James illustrates the improvisation, innovation and use the Latino community makes with the few resources they have. He introduces the personalization element adopted by the community in the absence of government

Marriage Between The Prophet Hosea And Gomer Religion Essay

Marriage Between The Prophet Hosea And Gomer Religion Essay At the centre of the Hebrew Bible in the book of Hosea chapters one and three, lays a controversy about the marriage between the prophet Hosea and Gomer the harlot. But Hosea 3:1 seems to be an interpretation of Hosea 1: 2. Taking these passages as historically true may defeat the nature of the righteousness of God. Moreover, the name, Gomer, also seems to be not historically true because of its being both a masculine and feminine. Therefore the narratives may not be a real historical reflection of the marital unfaithfulness but it may have meant to convey the message of Yahweh. The discussion of this subject will therefore, include; who was Hosea, who was Gomer, the metaphor for the unfaithful marriage and then conclusion. HOSEA: Hosea (Hoshea-saviour) was an eighth century prophet -a mouthpiece of Yahweh. He prophesied in the Northern Kingdom, which was under King Jeroboam II (Hosea 1: 1). The reign of Jeroboam was characterized by material prosperity but it was morally reeking and rotten due to idolatry as attested in Hosae 4:2 and 2 Kings 14: 23-29 (Halley, 1957: 321). Israel had committed great harlotry by forsaking the Lord (Hosea1: 2). The great sin that Israel had committed, compelled God to command Hosea to demonstrate it through his personal life. Hosea, a prophet and a staunch patriot of Yahwhism, received the message from Yahweh. The prophet was commanded to go and marry Gomer, a prostitute (Hosea 1:2). The marriage between the prophet and a prostitute is surrounded by controversies as recorded in Hosea chapters One and Three. The controversies include the doubtful possibility of Yahweh to expose Yahwehs prophet to a prostitute. However, scholars have said that the drama between Hosea and Gomer is a metaphor that demonstrates the unconditional love of God for Israel and humanity at large. The message was complex as Hosea spoke both of disaster and hope for restoration. By disaster he warned that the Assyrians would come to invade them. The demonstration involves the unfaithful marital drama between Hosea and Gomer his wife. This is seen in Hosea 1:2 and 3:1-2 where God commands Hosea to marry a prostitute and he repeated the command saying go again and love a prostitute. From these two texts, Gomer is seen as a prostitute before marrying Hosea. And she continued being unfaithful to her husband to the extent of defecting him for other men. Speculatively, the harlot in chapter three whom God commanded Hosea to marry again may be Gomer though the Bible does not mention the name Gomer. GOMER: The name seems to be masculine (Genesis 10: 2), but Hosea depicts it as a feminine name. Gomer was the wife of Hosea. She had three children and only the first-born is portrayed as a legitimate child of Hosea. The other two children were born out of wed log. The scripture records that Gomer left her husband-Hosea for other men. Therefore, the Bible depicts Gomer as a prostitute. Therefore, it is vital that the type of prostitution she indulged in is stressed precisely from scholarly point of view. Scholars have interpreted the first three chapters of Hosea in different ways (Hinson, 1992: 168). However, James Hastings suggests that Gomer was a temple prostitute (Hastings 1963: 398). This type of prostitution was common in Canaan as Werner Keller puts it; In Canaan in those days the cult of sensuality was regarded as the worship of the gods, temple took the place of brothels, men and women prostitutes ranked as sacred to the followers of the religion, their rewards for their services went into the temple treasuries as an offering for the god (Keller, 1956: 262). From this understanding, it is possible to conclude that Gomer could have been a temple prostitutes as Hastings puts it, Gomer was, before marriage, a temple prostitute (Hastings, 1963: 398). Further, it is uncertain that Yahweh, who is worthy, could allow his prophet to marry a prostitute. Prostitutes or adulterous women were deserved to be stoned to death and not to be take back to their marital homes (Psalm 85; Deuteronomy 22:20). Nevertheless, it has been the nature of God to reveal His plan in both words and actions as seen in Isaiah 20:1-6 and in Jeremiah 28:10f. Therefore, the metaphor could mean that Yahweh was transmitting his message through this drama. THE METAPHOR FOR THE UNFAITHFUL MARRIAGE: In this drama, Hosea is the representation of God who loves both the righteous and the sinner but hates sin. Gomer represent the Israelites who became broke the covenant made between them and God. The names of their children signify the attitude that God had developed against Israel due to idolatry (Hosea 1:4, 6, 9). Meanings of the names; The names of the children born in this unfaithful marriage show that the time of God (kairos) to punish Israel had come (Jezreel). Lo-ruhamah meant that God had no longer mercy for Israelites and Lo-ammi meant that Israel had rejected God. But later, Yahweh changed His mind and decided to forgive Israel (Halley, 1957: 317) as demonstrated by Hosea who redeemed his wife from playing harlotry. Hosea also is depicted as having accepted to keep the two illegitimate children. This shows how inclusive the love of God is. Hoseas attitude towards Gomer; Though with great pain and love of losing her in such a dramatic way, Hosea followed, called and redeemed his wife to himself. This is the exactly picture of God who is constantly mindful of human kind as portrayed in Psalm 8: 4. This is also depicted in the incarnation of Christ in the dispensation of salvation for humanity. As Hosea redeemed his wife, so is God ready to redeem humanity from any apostasy life as well as the bondage of sin despite being sinful (Romans 5: 8). In this view, the marital unfaithfulness represents how Israel became unfaithful to God by broking the Sinai covenant that was made between them and God as seen below. Defection and restoration of the covenant; The drama was the reminder to the Israelites that they were a holy nation. They were unique by having entered a relationship with God through a Sinai covenant. John Miller states that God, in the wilderness, initiated the covenant after the Israelites escape from Egypt. God showed the tender love for Israel. And this love is likened to the love for an infant who is dearly loved by the parent (Miller, 1987: 80). In this exclusive covenant, Israel is seen as a wife while Yahweh is the husband (Hastings, 1963:506). But Israel broke this covenant and became unfaithful to God by indulging in idolatry. This departure from worshipping Yahweh to other gods is likened to prostitution, which was rampant in temples (Miller, 1987:82). And of course sexual activity is a natural pattern of humanity. From this explanation, sacred prostitution implanted a belief of increasing prosperity and fertility, for example, agricultural product, as Israelites were an agrarian people. They depended on agriculture. Therefore they could not avoid adopting worshipping of Baal; a fertility god as Israel pursued material goods from other gods (Hastings, 1963:506). Attached to this worship was the belief concerning the cycle of growth and decay, birth and death and success in war. But in Canaan, they were openly shameless such that mother goddesses were branded as whores. (Keller, 1956: 262-263). This worship was connected to everyday life to ensure that by having sex in the temple; success was certain. As sex was performed in the temple, the god of fertility was impregnating the earth for farms to have good produce and success in trade. This is seen in how trade was conducted as goods probably food was sold by the rich to foreigners like Tyre; neglecting the fellow poor Israelites who could have worked for it. The seller-buyer relationship is also viewed as prostitution. These were the activities that penetrated Yahwism. And it was at this that the prophets were raged with patriotism zeal to fight the survival of Yahwism. The metaphor also refers to alliances with other nations on political basis. These alliances are likened to lovers whom Isaiah condemned. These foreign alliances brought idolatry into Israelites faith. Thus the depiction of Israels unfaithfulness to God (Jeremiah 2:18, 36-37; Hosea 5:13; 7:11-12). That is the breaking of covenant or the seal of salvation. As seen in this way, Israel committed adultery by being idolatry. Israel also followed the gods of violence, assassination and injustice. They totally rejected the precepts of Yahweh as stipulated in the Decalogue- Ten commandments (Hosea 4:2). Miller also points out thatWhen the austere worshippers of Yahweh entered Canaan from the wilderness of Sinai and first encountered such practices at Baal Peor, they were both shocked and intriguedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. numbers 25: Hosea 9:10 (Miller, 1987:82). Miller clearly states that Israel was a monotheistic nation. But the influence of the Canaanites swayed her away from Yahweh like a woman who leaves her only husband for other men. Iam therefore contend with the drama itself that demonstrates how loving Yahweh is. Yet even the changing of the names of Hoseas children from abandonment to embracing from not being my people to being my people is also a good honour to show that God cares. (Halley 1957:317). This shows that there is no slave or free person in the sight of God (Galatians 3). Though the children had no paternal inheritance because they were born out of wed log, they were also given access to inheritance in the house of Hosea. This is how Gods nature is (Hastings, 1963: 506 ). God wants a relationship between Godself and human beings. That is why God instituted the covenantal law to be the cord of bondage in this relationship. But this bondage has been weakened due to sin (Isaiah 59: 2). The sending of Hosea to remarry his wife demonstrates the concern of God for liberation of humanity. On the other hand God is reminding the people to return to God as Revelation 2:4-5a attests. This was the desire of Hose to see the salvation of Israel. He wished that Israel would be reconnected to the covenant. CONCLUSSION: The unfaithful marriage between Gomer and Hosea represents the broken Sinai covenantal relationship between Israel and God. The Sinai covenant was meant to be a practical, functional and a permanent-self definition and self-understanding of Israel as a chosen nation. But they forgot that God had entered into a covenant with them in the wilderness, which was their guide in political, social and religious spheres. Israel lost the morals. This resulted into idolatry, oppression and injustices. They forgot that they were a chosen nation that was required to live an exemplary life to the surrounding nations. It was the neglection of this covenant that God was displeased with the Israelites that his wrath raged against them. Yet, he brings word of compassionate hope for restoration and encouraged Israel to uphold the covenantal law, as Israel was a chosen nation who should have lived exemplary life.

Russian and Chechnyan conflict Essay -- essays research papers

Conflicts in a country occur everywhere in the world. Russia and Chechnya's conflict is one example.There were many reasons and factors that led this conflict to grow into a war. Both Russia and Chechnya had different goals and interests that they tried to achieve. This led them to oppose one another and see eachother as enemies. The following is a full analysis of the conflict, which explains the background factors, which contributed to it. The Chechnya- Russia conflict, can be more understood by looking to the past. The historical background is needed to display the whole picture of the war. The area in the southern Russia was called the Caucasus region. Many non-Russian ethnic groups lived there. It all began when the czars started a 300-year attempt to conquer the Northern Caucasus in 1560. They failed to take over Chechnya and other areas of the Caucasus because the Ottoman Empire had conquered them. The Chechens converted to Islam when they became under the Ottomans rule. Russia still did not give up. It made stronger attempts to invade the area and finally forced the withdrawal of the Ottomans by 1785.After winning the Caucasian War, the Russian government pressured many people to leave from Chechnya to different Muslim countries of the Middle East. In 1877,1920,and 1929 the Chechens made unsuccessful rebellion attempts against the czars and later Soviet powers. Their main goal behind this was to resist unification, anti-religion campaigns, and Russification. B...

Creatine Monohydrate Essay -- Supplements Chemistry Creatine Essays

Creatine Monohydrate Creatine monohydrate is a body building supplement. Many athletes and trainers use it to enhance athletic performance. College athletics are an advocate for creatine when it comes to exercising and strength conditioning, But what is creatine? Creatine is a naturally occurring metabolite found in red muscle tissue. It is a powerful ergogenic aid that plays an important role in energizing muscle. Creatine increases the body's ability to do work. It is high powered and generates the muscles ultimate energy source - ATP (adenosine triphosphate)- ATP produces the contractions of a muscle's proteins. When muscles are performing work ATP is being broken down into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and energy is given off. The ATP being used usually lasts 10 - 15 seconds. After that the muscle depends on creatine phosphate to restock the ATP. Creatine acts as a reserve for the ATP. Therefore increased amounts of creatine will allow the body to supply ATP at a faster rate. Which, in turn allows an individual to workout longer and maintain a high level of strength. With creatine as a supple)-nent the body is exposed 4 grams of creatine per kilogram. Red meats give 1 gram of creatine per large serving. These increased amounts of creatine slow the possibility of fatigue. Creatine promotes the synthesis of protein, which promotes muscle growth. The loading phase consists of 5 grams 4 - 6 times a day for the first 5 to 7 days. 'f his should be accompanied by at least I hour of exercise. The load should then be reduced after a week to no more than IO grams per day. This is what most of the stores that sell the creatine will tell vou because there aim is to sell the product. Since the product has been... ...ur best bet because it has been proved that loading is not necessary. While creatine is being taken it is necessary that the individual remains hydrated during the early cycles extra water is taken into the cells when creatine enters and this causes minor water retention- This water retention has been related to cramps and heat intolerance. The majority of the advocates for creatine didn't report any side effects. In most instances when the question was raised, the articles said, "Yes, it's safe. No negative side effects noted in research with recommended levels of supplement." All of these people were involved with sales and advertisement of the product also. An article on a review of creatine was the most effective in providing insight on creatine because it didn't have anything to do with promotions of it. Creatine is safe, it is pure and it works!

Analyzing Garret Harding’s Article Essay

This paper seeks to analyze the article â€Å"The Tragedy of the Commons† by Hardin (1968). The first part summarizes the main thesis by identifying the principle or principles that Hardin used to explain the Tragedy as he defines it. The second part describes how Hardin’s thesis would apply to production of smog pollutants in California. 2. Summary and Application 2. 1. Summary The paper article talks about the tragedy of the commons which has contradicted the â€Å"invisible hand† that was described by Adam Smith that would managed things for people by just allowing man’s selfishness to keep on profiting without realizing that the same could be helping people in the process. The tragedy of the commons is therefore preventing the operation of the market or certain individuals from fully attaining what is good for these individuals because of the inevitable overpopulation. However the author has also acknowledged ways or factors under which the tragedy of commons could be neutralized such the existence of private property in support of that man’s selfishness in accordance with Smith’s theory. He also mentioned other factors that may have either supported to weaken the tragedy of commons. He therefore still sees a solution to the tragedy, which is the relinquishment of freedom to breed by the commons. Such can be done by some intervention of those who have the power like the state. The thesis of the Hardin (1968) further asserts that the problem on overpopulation has no technical solution for there is nothing to maximize. He noted the fact the people are concerned about the problem of overpopulation and that the same people would try the ways to avoid the evils of such situation but without giving up the pleasure that they have now. The author asserted the fact the people would want to make everything possible where plans could be growing or developing any source of food that will solve the problem caused by the overpopulation. Hardin asserted about the absence of technical solution to the problem as in winning the game of tick-tack-toe. He concluded that the simplest summary of the analysis of man’s problem in population is that the commons could justify their existence only under conditions of low-population density. Thus he argued that given the fact the population has increased, these commons have to be abandoned in one aspect. According to Hardin, the first way to abandon them can be done food gathering, enclosing farm land, restricting pastures and in hunting and fishing areas. He also saw the commons as a place for waste disposal that would justify their abandonment. Since the author also values human freedom preservation, it was his position that to preserve and nurture the more important kinds of freedom, the solution is to give up the freedom to breed from these commons as soon as possible. 2. 2 Application to the Production of Smog Pollutants in California This part of the paper will define â€Å"Commons† in the case of the smog pollutants in California as those people that may be part of the creating the problems of smog pollution in California, who may or may not be aware of the solution or cause of the problem. Individuals or non-commons may be those that are not part of the common which could be exemplified by the group described by Hardin which espouses the relinquishment of freedom to breed in order to arrest the tragedy of overpopulation caused and who believes that there are no technical solutions to problem. Since the case of pollution is related to overpopulation which according to Hardin has caused the problem, the non-commons extends their argument in this part that opt to give up still the freedom to breed for commons. This part describes also the problem in terms of the different view from the commons, the non-commons or individual In terms of the commons, the problem of smog Production is a problem that could be technologically solved. Hence these commons would argue for the need for the production of cars that would be equipment of the capability of reduced or smog pollutants (Vannijnatten and Lambright, 2001; Dooley, 2002)). This could be evident in the case of what is being required now of new cars from California. Newer cars starting with 2009 model will be required to have label that contains a level as to tier ranks in terms of environmental impact. The information is designed to provide consumers with the practical information that could contribute to their being responsible decision makers in the use of environment friendly vehicles while satisfying or meeting the needs of these people to move around (Environment News Service, 2009). The label used for environmental performance will include a scale of 1-10 for global warming scores and smog score. The higher score on both scales will show that the car is more environment friendly car. With average normal score of 5 on both scales, the values of the decision makers will also show how they will value the environment will also be reflective of scores recorded (Environment News Service, 2009). Electric cars are noted to earn higher ratings than non-electric cars on both score thereby indicating the role of technology (Environment News Service, 2009). This would provide a strong argument against that of Hardin (1968) that there is no technical solution to the problem. It could be argued that electric cars evolved from gasoline cars and therefore consumers may be deemed to have become more responsible to the environment. In terms of the individual interests, as espoused by Garrett Hardin (1968), the solution is non-technical that one can never minimized or maximized that point where there could acceptable smog pollutant level. From this view, the problem comes from the commons in the case of production of smog pollutants and not from non-commons which do not see themselves as part of the problem. Hardin’s viewed that there are indeed people causing smog pollutants in California which may not be prevented from having better cars due to the bias that there is no technical solution to the problem. The solution could not be found therefore under the principle developed as viewed by commons that more efficient cars could be produced but rather in stopping the freedom to breed commons which will prevent the problem created in the production of smog pollutant in California. Hardin under his own view would rather therefore go for stopping the breeding of the commons who keep on violating the rights of individuals because of the enclosures or certain advantages or favors given to these commons. The solution could include calling for government actions to deny seeming shout for more rights and liberties by the commons. In the article on Tragedy of the commons, Hardin (2008) also attacked the fact that every favor given to the commons is a deprivation of somebody’s personal liberty. He argued that while infringements made in the past could be accepted by him and the believers of his cause, he could only now see the abuse of infringement made because of the cries for rights and freedom are made by commons. He saw the benefits given to the commons are a way of robbing against the non-commons. He further saw only universal ruin if the logic of the commons would continue to be upheld. For this purpose the author saw only the need for true freedom that is based on recognition of necessity. If this principle is applied to the smog pollutants in California, Hardin would see hopeless of having smog free cars and that the cost of regulation for smog free cars could only be caused by the commons. If Hardin’s position is to be sustained, this would amount to prohibiting rather the commons to not having cars any more by government actions since these non-commons would not want to share life with the commons who will eventually cause overpopulation. Hardin (1968) also argued in the article that the most important aspect of necessity is the present need to recognize the necessity of abandoning the commons in breeding. Since he saw the absence of technical solution to the problem the misery of overpopulation would necessarily come along with all related evils. He posited that freedom to breed will bring ruin to all. In effect, Hardin would want to address still the issue of overpopulation since all the issue of pollution according to him is also cause by population. In terms of collective interest, people need to co-exist together whether commons or non-commons because they only live in one land surface — the earth which provides life for everybody. The right of co-existence happens because the ethical theory of social justice demands that one must practice what is just and fair to everybody concerned. To have peaceful-coexistence, there must be an intention of each of the commons or the individuals to sacrifice some of their rights for the survival of both. The resulting conflict, if not solved, will put humans into a level of what is contentious as instinctively, the instinct for survival is as old as life itself (Fikes, 2001). Each person whether common or non-common has rights and obligations to discharge if each is to live together harmoniously. While it is true that smog production would be dangerous to the environment and the common may occupy a bigger share in the total number of the population, it could be easily accepted that they could be wipe out on earth so that only the non-common shall live. To determine whether indeed a technical solution is possible, there is a need to understand the nature of smog which is a kind of air pollution caused them the petrochemical reaction of sunlight with volatile organic compounds and oxides of nitrogen when released into the atmosphere. The same is therefore normally observed in automobile operation. To attain smog free objective, California used smog score by ranking each vehicles pollutant’s levels in terms of non-methane organic gases and oxides of nitrogen in relation to other vehicles within the current model year. Within the scale of 1 to 10, the California scale assigns 10 to be the cleanest while the average score 5 (Environment News Service, 2009). This could therefore testify to the creation of technical solutions that would solve the problem of smog production in California. This again will provide strong argument against the position taken by the Hardin (1968) on the absence of technical solution. Another proof of this evolution in technology is in the light of the belief that car model before 2006 would fall below the smog score of one. An action for more stringent standards must be viewed as a way of creating solution that would satisfy the collective interest of both commons and non-commons. The fact of smog inspection involves knowing whether Hydrocarbons, Nitrous Oxides or Carbon Monoxides (SmogTips, Inc, 2009) are present since these chemicals are identified for the production of smog. The fact the human knowledge has identified these chemicals from a long list of other known chemicals must speak further as evidence of technical solution to the problem of pollution. 3. Conclusion This paper concludes that the thesis of Hardin (1968) on lack of technical solution to the problem of smog pollutants in California is not rue. This paper has found moves in California to control the production of smog pollutants. The thesis may have raised some points that consider in effect the tragedy caused by the commons where the author has even attacked the theory of universal human rights. The view of the author is in favor individualist orientation and subscribes to the ideal of selfish genes. However, as society has evolved, the individualists have lived together with the commons for centuries and although the position of Hardin may be logical at some points, this paper takes exception to the assertion that there is no technical solution to problems. There is a solution because humanity is forever looking for ways to solve its problems whether the scientist may come from commons or not. References: Dooley, E. (2002) Fifty Years Later: Clearing the Air over the London Smog; Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 110 Environment News Service (2009) New California Cars Display Smog, Global Warming Scores, {www document} URL, http://www. ens-newswire. com/ens/jan2009/2009-01-02-092. asp, Accessed January 29, 2009 Fikes, T. (2001) Evolutionary Psychology as Computational Theory in the Cognitive Sciences; Journal of Psychology and Theology, Vol. 29 Hardin, Garrett (1968) â€Å"The Tragedy of the Commons†, {www document} URL http://www. sciencemag. org/cgi/content/full/162/3859/1243, Accessed January 29, 2009 SmogTips, Inc (2009) How to pass the California emissions test. 3-Part Test. , {www document} URL http://www. smogtips. com/passing_inspection. cfm, Accessed January 29, 2009 Vannijnatten and Lambright (2001); North American Smog: Science-Policy Linkages across Multiple Boundaries Canadian-American Public Policy